A-textbook-of-environmental-chemistry-and-pollution-control-pdf [NEW]

A-textbook-of-environmental-chemistry-and-pollution-control-pdf

This information is used by the national government to implement the 11th Five Year National Program on Pollution Prevention and Control in 2004–08. The program aims to address the environment and human health problems caused by air, water, and soil pollution [ 34 ].

The Bioconcentration Index (BCI) is a standard measure used to describe and rank the degree of accumulation of a toxic material in an aquatic invertebrate, in particular, a crustacean. When BCI ≥0.4, accumulation is regarded as a bioaccumulation phenomenon. However, concentration factors must be evaluated carefully because they are often biased by low abundance species. Accumulation leads to the development of a more saturated lipid phase and to accumulation of lipophilic compounds. BCI is expected to be useful for selecting a species or particular population in field studies, to evaluate the risk of absorption and accumulation of toxins in organisms, and to predict the fate of the substances in the environment. Bioaccumulation generally induces enrichment of a given metal in organisms over other elements. The metals that accumulate tend to be the ones that are more soluble and not bound to particles. Bioconcentration factors have been determined for fish species (Charpin and Raphaël [ 17 ]). For instance, BCI < 1, 1-2, 2-4, and >4 were obtained for Cladophora sp., Astacus astacus, Macoma trachura, and Pleuronectes platessa, respectively. Among invertebrates, a large range of BCI values was reported, in particular, BCI = 0.23-1.7 for the mussel Mytilus edulis and BCI = 0.33-2.0 for the shrimp Macrothynus trispinosus. BCI values are generally higher for lipophilic metals. Generally, BCI values are smaller in plants. However, BCI > 100 have been reported for animal tissues (Brunet [ 18 ]). From a risk management perspective, BCI values are useful in predicting the bioaccumulation potential of environmental contaminants and allow for the formulation of more precise estimations of risk. In addition, BCI can be used as a new tool to evaluate the toxicity of the metals within the aquatic environment, and thus, to ensure good environmental quality of the aquatic ecosystem. However, BCI should be used only as one of the several descriptors for the assessment of the potential risk of a given metal in an aquatic environment. It has been proposed as a specific quantitative parameter for the hazard of pollutants, to assess the effect of pollution on the ecosystem and to determine the contribution of metals to the generation of biological effects in the aquatic environment [ 19 ]. The published studies of metal accumulation in aquatic organisms are often performed to understand the ecosystem effects of particular pollutants in aquatic environments.

Heterocyclic compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), perfluorinated compounds, and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) are significant contributors to environmental pollution. PAHs, which consist of a large number of carbon and hydrogen atoms as well as various functional groups, are representative environmental pollutants. PAHs are widespread in the environment, particularly in coal-fueled power plants. They are also found in the air, water, sediment, and soil in various forms [ 119-123]. The major sources of PAHs in the environment are the incomplete combustion of organic material such as oil, coal, wood, and animal waste. Another source is petroleum, used for various purposes from fuel to paint [ 119, 120 ]. Concerns over the chronic exposure to PAHs, which has been associated with lung and urinary tract cancers, have increased because of changing PAH levels in the environment and changes in PAH metabolism [ 124-126].
Many companies are creating development programs that take advantage of chemical technologies. Most companies, however, are not legally able to use these technologies to reduce hazard or risk. Established companies that are proficient in green chemistry typically offer services to their clients, including assessment, design, formulation, and technology transfer. Conversely, established companies that are less capable of implementing green chemistry technologies may use contractors to assist in the design or evaluation of the green technology. Outsourced design companies are employed by many companies in a similar manner, but their design services are generally more targeted.
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